Pengertian Variabel, Frekuensi, Distribusi Frekuensi dan Tabel Distribusi Frekuensi

A.    Pengertian Variabel
Identifikasi variabel merupakan bagian dari langkah penelitian yang dilakukan peneliti dengan cara menentukan variabel-variabel yang ada dalam penelitiannya. Macam-macam pengertian variabel menurut definisi para ahli antara lain sebagai berikut..
•    Menurut F.N Kerlinger, Pengertian variabel adalah sifat yang diambil dari suatu nilai yang berlainan
•    Menurut Sutrisno hadi, Pengertian variabel adalah objek penelitian yang bervariasi. Contohnya ukuran tinggi manusia yang divariasikan menjadi tingkatan umur, kelamin serta lokasi tempat tinggal manusia tersebut.
•    Menurut Bagja Waluya, Pengertian variabel adalah konsep yang tidak pernah ketinggalan dalam setiap eksperimen/penelitina (research).
•    Menurut Sugiarto, Pengertian variabel adalah karakter yang dapat diobservasi dari unit amatan yang merupakan suatu pengenal atau atribut dari sekelompok objek. Maksud dari variabel tersebut adalah terjadinya variasi antara objek yang satu dengan objek yang lainnya dalam kelompok tertentu.
Dari berbagai hasil definisi para ahli mengenai pengertian variabel, ditemukan pengertian variabel yang sebenarnya, dimana secara umum, pengertian variabel adalah suatu besaran yang dapat diubah atau berubah sehingga dapat mempengaruhi peristiwa atau hasil penelitian. Dengan penggunaan variabel, kita dapat dengan mudah memperoleh dan memahami permasalahan.
Variabel juga dapat diartikan sebagai suatu besaran kuantitatif atau kualitatif yang dapat bervariasi atau berubah pada situasi tertentu. Besaran kuantitatif adalah besaran yang dinyatakan dalam ukuran baku, misalnya tinggi badan yang dinyatakan dalam cm, massa benda dinyatakan dengan gram, suhu badan dengan oC (derajat Celcius). Besaran kualitatif adalah besaran yang tidak dinyatakan dalam satuan pengukuran yang bersifat relatif, misalnya: bau masakan (sedap, kurang sedap, tidak sedap), warna (menarik, kurang menarik, tidak menarik), rasa makanan (enak, kurang enak, tidak enak), kesenangan, kepuasan, dan sebagainya.
Dalam mengidentifikasi atau menuliskan variabel, peneliti harus menyebutkan atau menuliskan bagaimana tiap variabel akan diukur. Sebagai misal, dalam pernyataan tinggi tanaman pisang bergantung pada jumlah air yang disiramkan pada tanaman tersebut. Maka “tinggi tanaman” merupakan variabel, sedangkan “tinggi” bukan variabel.
Macam-Macam Variabel dan Contohnya
•    Variabel Independen (Variabel Bebas) adalah variabel yang mempengaruhi atau sebab perubahan timbulnya variabel terikat (dependen). Variabel Independen disebut juga dengan variabel perlakuan, kausa, risiko, variabel stimulus, antecedent, variabel pengaruh, treatment, dan variabel bebas. Dapat dikatakan variabel bebas karena dapat mempengaruhi variabel lainnya. Contoh Variabel Bebas (Independen) seperti "Pengaruh Terapi Musik terhadap Penurunan Tingkat Kecemasan".
•    Variabel Despenden (Variabel Terikat) adalah variabel yang dipengaruhi, akibat dari adanya variabel bebas. Dikatakan sebagai variabel terikat karena variabel terikat dipengaruhi oleh variabel independen (variabel bebas). Variabel Despenden disebut juga dengan variabel terikat, variabel output, Konsekuen, variabel tergantung, kriteria, variabel terpengaruh, dan variabel efek. Contoh Variabel Terikat (Despenden) seperti Pengaruh Terapi Musik terhadap Penurunan Tingkat Kecemasan.
•    Variabel Moderator (Variabel Independen Kedua) adalah variabel yang mempengaruhi baik itu memperkuat atau memperlemah hubungan antara Variabel bebas dan terikat. Skema variabel moderator yaitu Variabel Bebas (Independen) - Moderator - Despenden. Contoh Variabel Moderator adalah Hubungan motivasi dan prestasi belajar akan semakin kuat bila peranan dosen dalam menciptakan lingkungan belajar yang baik, dan hubungan semakin rendah bila peranan dosen kurang baik dalam menciptakan lingkungan belajar. 
•    Variabel Intervening adalah variabel yang mempengaruhi variabel bebas dan variabel terikat secara teoritis, tetapi tidak dapat diamati dan diukur. Variabel intervening merupakan variabel antara/penyela pada variabel bebas dan variabel terikat, sehingga variabel bebas tidak langsung mempengaruhi perubahan variabel terikat. Contoh Variabel Intervening adalah Hubungan antara Kualitas Pelayanan dengan kepuasan konsumen dan Loyalitas (Dependen).
•    Variabel Kontrol adalah variabel yang dikendalikan atau dibuat konstan sehingga hubungan variabel bebas terhadap variabel terikat tidak terpengaruh oleh faktor luat yang tidak telitit. Variabel kontrol sering digunakan sebagai pemanding melalui penelitian eksperimental. Contoh Variabel Kontrol adalah Apakah perbedaan tenaga penjual (sales force) yang lulus D3 dan SI, maka terlebih dahulu harus ditetapkan variabel kontrol contohnya berupa gaji yang sama, peralatan yang sama, lingkungan kerja yang sama. Jadi, variabel kontrol memudahkan dalam menentukan perbedaan.



B.    Pengertian Frekuensi
Kata frekuensi berasal dari bahasa inggris yaitu Frequency yang artinya kekerapan, keseringan, jarang kerapnya. Dalam ilmu statistik pengertian frekuensi adalah angka (bilangan yang menunjukan seberapa kali suatu variable (yang dilambangkan dengan angka) berulang dalam deretan angka teresbut atau berapa kalikah suatu variable (yang dilambangkan dengan angka) muncul dalam deretan angka tersebut.
Contoh:
Nilai yang berhasil didapat oleh 10 orang siswa dalam tes hasil belajar bidang studi IPA adalah sebagai berikut:
              60 50 75 60 80 40 60 70 100 75
Nilai 60 muncul sebanyak 3 kali yang artinya frekuensi nilai 60 adalah 3.
Nilai 70 muncul hanya sekali yang artinya frekuensi nilai 70 adalah 1, dan begitu seterusnya.
C.    Distribusi Frekuensi
Kata distribusi berasal dari bahasa inggris yaitu distribution yang artinya penyaluran, pembagian, atau pencaran. Data yang telah diperoleh dari suatu penelitian yang masih berupa data acak dapat dibuat menjadi data yang berkelompok, yaitu data yang telah disusun ke dalam kelas-kelas tertentu. Daftar yang memuat data berkelompok disebut distribusi frekuensi. Distribusi frekuensi adalah susunan data menurut kelas interval tertentu atau menurut kategori tertentu dalam sebuah daftar.
D.    Tabel Distribusi Frekuensi
Adapun yang dimaksud dengan tabel distribusi frekuensi yaitu alat penyajian data yang berbentuk kolom dan lajur, yang didalamnya dimuat angka yang dapat melukiskan atau menggambarkan pencaran atau pembagian frekuensi dari variabel yang sedang menjadi objek penelitian. Tabel distribusi frekuensi dibuat agar data yang telah dikumpulkan dalam jumlah yang sangat banyak dapat disajikan dalam bentuk yang jelas dan baik. Dengan kata lain, tabel distribusi frekuensi  dibuat untuk menyederhanakan bentuk dan jumlah data sehingga ketika disajikan kepada para pembaca dapat dengan mudah dipahami atau dinilai.
Sebagai contoh, perhatikan contoh data pada Tabel 1. Tabel tersebut adalah daftar nilai ujian Matakuliah Statistik dari 80 Mahasiswa.


Tabel 1. Daftar Nilai Ujian Matakuliah Statistik
92
93
76
71
90
72
67
75
92
93
76
71
90
72
67
75
80
91
61
72
97
91
88
81
80
91
61
72
97
91
88
81
70
74
99
95
80
59
71
77
70
74
99
95
80
59
71
77
63
60
83
82
60
67
89
63
63
60
83
82
60
67
89
63
76
63
88
70
66
88
79
75
76
63
88
70
66
88
79
75

Sangatlah sulit untuk menarik suatu kesimpulan dari daftar data tersebut. Secara sepintas, kita belum bisa menentukan berapa nilai ujian terkecil atau terbesar. Demikian pula, kita belum bisa mengetahui dengan tepat, berapa nilai ujian yang paling banyak atau berapa banyak mahasiswa yang mendapatkan nilai tertentu. Dengan demikian, kita harus mengolah data tersebut terlebih dulu agar dapat memberikan gambaran atau keterangan yang lebih baik.
Bandingkan dengan tabel yang sudah disusun dalam bentuk daftar frekuensi (Tabel 2a dan Tabel 2b). Tabel 2a merupakan daftar frekuensi dari data tunggal dan Tabel 2b merupakan daftar frekuensi yang disusun dari data yang sudah di kelompokkan pada kelas yang sesuai dengan selangnya. Kita bisa memperoleh beberapa informasi atau karakteristik dari data nilai ujian mahasiswa.
Tabel  2a.
No
Nilai Ujian
Frekuensi
1
35
1
2
36
0
3
37
0
4
38
1
:
:
:
16
70
4
17
71
3
:
:
:
42
98
1
43
99
1
Total
80

Pada Tabel 2a, kita bisa mengetahui bahwa ada 80 mahasiswa yang mengikuti ujian, nilai ujian terkecil adalah 35 dan tertinggi adalah 99. Nilai 70 merupakan nilai yang paling banyak diperoleh oleh mahasiswa, yaitu ada 4 orang, atau kita juga bisa mengatakan ada 4 mahasiswa yang memperoleh nilai 70, tidak ada satu pun mahasiswa yang mendapatkan nilai 36, atau hanya satu orang mahasiswa yang mendapatkan nilai 35.

Tabel  2b.
Kelas ke-
Nilai Ujian
Frekuensi fi
1
31 – 40
2
2
41 – 50
3
3
51 – 60
5
4
61 – 70
13
5
71 – 80
24
6
81 – 90
21
7
91 – 100
12

Jumlah
80

Tabel 2b merupakan daftar frekuensi dari data yang sudah dikelompokkan. Daftar ini merupakan daftar frekuensi yang sering digunakan. Kita sering kali mengelompokkan data contoh ke dalam selang-selang tertentu agar memperoleh gambaran yang lebih baik mengenai karakteristik dari data. Dari daftar tersebut, kita bisa mengetahui bahwa mahasiswa yang mengikuti ujian ada 80, selang kelas nilai yang paling banyak diperoleh oleh mahasiswa adalah sekitar 71 sampai 80, yaitu ada 24 orang, dan seterusnya. Hanya saja perlu diingat bahwa dengan cara ini kita bisa kehilangan identitas dari data aslinya. Sebagai contoh, kita bisa mengetahui bahwa ada 2 orang yang mendapatkan nilai antara 31 sampai 40. Meskipun demikian, kita tidak akan tahu dengan persis, berapa nilai sebenarnya dari 2 orang mahasiswa tersebut, apakah 31 apakah 32 atau 36 dst.
Beberapa istilah-istilah dalam tabel distribusi frekuensi.
Tabel 3.
Kelas ke-
Selang Nilai Ujian
Batas Kelas
Nilai Tengah
Frekuensi (fi)
1
31 – 40
30.5 – 40.5
35.5
2
2
41 – 50
40.5 – 50.5
45.5
3
3
51 – 60
50.5 – 60.5
55.5
5
4
61 – 70
60.5 – 70.5
65.5
13
5
71 – 80
70.5 – 80.5
75.5
24
6
81 – 90
80.5 – 90.5
85.5
21
7
91 – 100
90.5 – 100.5
95.5
12
Jumlah
80
•    Range : Selisih antara nilai tertinggi dan terendah. Pada contoh ujian di atas, Range = 99 – 35 = 64
•    Batas bawah kelas : Nilai terkecil yang berada pada setiap kelas. (Contoh: Pada Tabel 3 di atas, batas bawah kelasnya adalah 31, 41, 51, 61, …, 91)
•    Batas atas kelas : Nilai terbesar yang berada pada setiap kelas. (Contoh: Pada Tabel 3 di atas, batas bawah kelasnya adalah 40, 50, 60, …, 100)
•    Batas kelas (Class boundary) : Nilai yang digunakan untuk memisahkan antar kelas, tapi tanpa adanya jarak antara batas atas kelas dengan batas bawah kelas berikutnya. Contoh: Pada kelas ke-1, batas kelas terkecilnya yaitu 30.5 dan terbesar 40.5. Pada kelas ke-2, batas kelasnya yaitu 40.5 dan 50.5. Nilai pada batas atas kelas ke-1 (40.5) sama dengan dan merupakan nilai batas bawah bagi kelas ke-2 (40.5). Batas kelas selalu dinyatakan dengan jumlah digit satu desimal lebih banyak daripada data pengamatan asalnya. Hal ini dilakukan untuk menjamin tidak ada nilai pengamatan yang jatuh tepat pada batas kelasnya, sehingga menghindarkan keraguan pada kelas mana data tersebut harus ditempatkan.
•    Panjang/lebar kelas (selang kelas) : Selisih antara dua nilai batas bawah kelas yang berurutan atau selisih antara dua nilai batas atas kelas yang berurutan atau selisih antara nilai terbesar dan terkecil batas kelas bagi kelas yang bersangkutan. Biasanya lebar kelas tersebut memiliki lebar yang sama. Contoh:
lebar kelas = 41 – 31 = 10 (selisih antara 2 batas bawah kelas yang berurutan) atau
lebar kelas = 50 – 40 = 10 (selisih antara 2 batas atas kelas yang berurutan) atau
lebar kelas = 40.5 – 30.5 = 10. (selisih antara nilai terbesar dan terkecil batas kelas pada kelas ke-1)
•    Nilai tengah kelas : Nilai kelas merupakan nilai tengah dari kelas yang bersangkutan yang diperoleh dengan formula berikut: ½ (batas atas kelas+batas bawah kelas). Nilai ini yang dijadikan pewakil dari selang kelas tertentu untuk perhitungan analisis statistik selanjutnya. Contoh: Nilai kelas ke-1 adalah ½(31+40) = 35.5
•    Banyak kelas : Sudah jelas! Pada tabel ada 7 kelas.
•    Frekuensi kelas : Banyaknya kejadian (nilai) yang muncul pada selang kelas tertentu. Contoh, pada kelas ke-1, frekuensinya = 2. Nilai frekuensi = 2 karena pada selang antara 30.5 – 40.5, hanya ada 2 angka yang muncul, yaitu nilai ujian 31 dan 38.



DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Hasan, M. Iqbal. 2001. Pokok-pokok Materi Statistik I (Statistik Deskriptif) Jakarta: Bumi Aksara.
http://www.ruswanto.com/p/identifikasi-dan-definisi-variabel.html
http://www.artikelsiana.com/2015/04/pengertian-variabel-macam-macam-variabel-para-ahli.html
http://www.kajianpustaka.com/2014/03/distribusi-frekuensi.html
http://zaneta9bp2.blogspot.co.id/p/tabel-distribusi-frekuensi.html

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Pengertian Simple Present Tense

Simple present tense adalah suatu bentuk kata kerja untuk menyatakan fakta, kebiasaan, atau kejadian yang terjadi pada saat ini. Bentuk kata kerja ini paling sering digunakan dalam bahasa Inggris.

Penjelasan dan Rumus Simple Present Tense

Simple present tense dibentuk dari verb-1 (present tense) atau linking verb “be” (is, am, are). Apa itu verb-1? Verb-1 merupakan bare infinitive dengan tambahan -s atau -es (contoh verb-1: does, goes, wants) khusus untuk subject berupa singular noun (kata benda tunggal: Tita, book, car) atau third person singular pronoun (kata ganti orang ketiga tunggal: she, he, it); atau tanpa tambahan apapun (contoh verb-1: do, go, want) untuk subject berupa plural noun (boys, men, books) atau plural pronoun (we, they), pronoun I/you, atau compound subject (you and me, Tina and Ratih).
Berikut rumus simple present tense untuk kalimat positif, negatif, dan interogatif.

Kalimat	Rumus Simple Present Tense	Contoh Simple Present Tense
positif (+)	S + V-1 S +/- auxiliary (do/does) + bare infinitive	She likes eating out
	S + be (am/is/are)	The children are naughty.
negatif (-)	S + auxiliary (do/does) + not + bare infinitive	She doesn’t like eating out
	S + be(am/is/are) + not	The children aren’t naughty
interogatif (?)	Do/Does + S + bare infinitive	Does she like eating out
	Be(am/is/are) + S	Are the children naughty

Catatan:

Pada kalimat positif, normalnya auxiliary verb (do/does) tidak digunakan, melainkan hanya digunakan jika perlu untuk memberi penekanan pada keharusan melakukan aksi.

Simple Present Tense vs. Present Continuous Tense

Aktivitas atau kejadiaan pada simple present tense terjadi pada saat ini (present) namun tidak benar-benar sedang berlangsung seperti present continous tense. Berikut perbandingannya.

• Simple present tense: He sleeps without a pillow. (Dia tidur tanpa bantal. ≈ habit)
• Present continuous tense: He is sleeping without a pillow. (Dia sedang tidur tanpa bantal)

Fungsi dan Contoh Kalimat Simple Present Tense

Fungsi	Contoh Kalimat Simple Present Tense
Simple present tense untuk menyatakan habitual action (kebiasaan) dimana sering digunakan adverb of frequency (always, often, usually, every day/week, month, all the time, etc) sebagai time signals.	He always consumes low GI rice. (Dia selalu mengonsumsi beras rendah GI.)
	She sends much money to her parents in the village every month. (Dia mengirimkan banyak uang kepada orangtuanya di desa setiap bulan.)
Factual (kebenaran umum/fakta yang tak terbantahkan)	The sun rises from the east and sets in the west. (Matahari terbit dari ufuk timur dan tenggelam di ufuk barat.)
	Water boils at 100 degrees Celcius. (Air mendidih pada suhu 100 derajat celcius.)
Simple present tense digunakan untuk membuat simple statement yang berlaku general (berlaku kapan saja) maupun tidak general (menggunakan verb be).	I live in Jakarta. (Saya tinggal di Jakarta)
	She is so beautiful. (Dia sangat cantik.)
	He’s angry. (Dia marah.) [tidak general: terjadi sekarang]
Simple present tense menggunakan stative verb untuk menyatakan perasaan (feeling), indera (sense), pikiran (mental state), atau kepemilikan (possession).	She loves dancing. (Dia suka menari.)
	I see tears in your eyes. (Saya melihat air mata di matamu.)
	We agree with the speaker’s opinion. (Kami setuju dengan pendapat pembicara tersebut.)
	My brother owns a new house. (Saudaraku memiliki rumah baru.)
Simple present tense digunakan untuk membicarakan rencana atau jadwal di masa depan namun memiliki jangka waktu dekat dengan sekarang. Umumnya membicarakan tentang transportasi atau event. Verb yang biasa digunakan antara lain: arrive, come, leave.	The ship leaves the harbour this night at 7 o’clock. (Kapal meninggalkan pelabuhan malam ini jam 7.)
	He arrives from Osaka at 1 pm. (Dia tiba dari Osaka jam 1 siang.)
	The ceremony starts at nine. (Upacara dimulai jam sembilan.)
Simple present tense digunakan untuk memberikan instruksi atau serial aksi.	You add a glass of coconut milk into a pan and then boil it. (Kamu tambah segelas santan ke dalam panci lalu rebus.)
	You go straight ahead then turn left. (Kamu jalan lurus ke depan lalu belok kiri.)
Simple present tense digunakan pada conditional sentence tipe 1.	If you meet the naughty boy, your parents will be angry. (Jika kamu bertemu dengan anak nakal itu, orangtuamu akan marah.)
	I will go swimming if I have free time. (Saya akan pergi berenang jika ada waktu.)

References:

1. Simple Present Tense. http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/tenses/simple_present.htm. Accessed on February 19, 2012.
2. The Present Continuous and the Simple Present. http://fog.ccsf.edu/~lfried/grammar/present.html. Accessed on February 19, 2012.
3. Simple Present Tense. http://www.mit.edu/course/21/21.guide/present.htm. Accessed on February 19, 2012.
4. The Present Simple Tense. http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/rules/pressimp.htm. Accessed on February 19, 2012.
5. Simple Present Tense. http://www.stanford.edu/~kenro/Edu208/GrammarUnits/simplepresentUnit.html. Accessed on February 19, 2012.

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How To Write an English Essay

How to Write an Essay
7th grade8th grade9th gradeMiddle SchoolHigh SchoolCollege
image:   http://www.yourdictionary.com/index.php/image/articles/3447.EssayPaper.jpg
Essays are common in elementary, middle, high school and college, and you may even need to write essays in the business world (although they are usually called "reports" at that point). An essay is defined as "a short piece of writing that expresses information as well as the writer's opinion."
For some, writing an essay is as simple as sitting down at their computer and beginning to type, but a lot more planning goes into writing an essay successfully. If you have never written an essay before, or if you struggle with writing and want to improve your skills, it is a good idea to go through several steps in the essay writing process.For example, to write an essay, you should generally:
Decide what kind of essay to write
Brainstorm your topic
Do research
Develop a thesis
Outline your essay
Write your essay
Edit your writing to check spelling and grammar
While this sounds like a lot of steps to write a simple essay, if you follow them you will be able to write more successful, clear and cohesive essays..
Kinds of Essays
The first step to writing an essay is to decide what kind of essay to write. There are several main structures into which essays can be grouped:
Narrative Essays: Tell a story or impart information about your subject in a straightforward, orderly manner.
Descriptive Essays: Focus on the details of what is going on. For example, if you want to write a descriptive essay about your trip to the park, you would give great detail about what you experienced: how the grass felt beneath your feet, what the park benches looked like, and anything else the reader would need to feel as if he were there.
Persuasive Essay: Convince the reader of some point of view.
Comparative Essay: Compare two or more different things.
Expository Essay: Explain to the reader how to do a given process. You could, for example, write an expository essay with step-by-step instructions on how to make a peanut butter sandwich.
Knowing what kind of essay you are trying to write can help you decide on a topic and structure your essay in the best way possible.
Brainstorming
You cannot write an essay unless you have an idea of what to write about. Brainstorming is the process in which you come up with the essay topic. You need to simply sit and think of ideas during this phase.
Write down everything that comes to mind as you can always narrow those topics down later.
You could also use clustering or mind mapping to brainstorm and come up with an essay idea. This involves writing your topic or idea in the center of the paper and creating bubbles (clouds or clusters) of related ideas around it. This can be a great way to develop a topic more deeply and to recognize connections between various facets of your topic.
Once you have a list of possible topics, it's time to choose the best one that will answer the question posed for your essay. You want to choose a topic that is neither too broad nor too narrow.
If you are given an assignment to write a one page essay, it would be far too much to write about “the history of the US” since that could fill entire books.
Instead, you could write about a very specific event within the history of the United States: perhaps signing the Declaration of Independence or when Columbus discovered the U.S.
Choose the best topic from among them and begin moving forward on writing your essay.
Research

Once you have done your brainstorming and chosen your topic, you may need to do some research to write a good essay. Go to the library or look on the Internet for information about your topic. Interview people who might be experts in the subject. Keep your research organized so it will be easy for you to refer back to, and easy for you to cite your sources when writing your final essay.
Developing a Thesis

Your thesis is the main point of your essay. It is essentially one sentence that says what the essay is about. For example, your thesis might be "Dogs are descended from wolves." You can then use this as the basic premise to write your entire essay, and all of the different points throughout need to lead back to this one main thesis. The thesis will usually be used in your introductory paragraph.The thesis should be broad enough that you have enough to say about it, but not so broad that you can't be thorough.
Outlining Your Essay

The next step is to outline what you are going to write about. This means you want to essentially draw the skeleton of your paper. Writing an outline can help to ensure your paper is logical, well organized and flows properly.Start by writing the thesis at the top and then write a topic sentence for each paragraph below. This means you should know exactly what each of your paragraphs are going to be about before you write them.
Don’t jumble too many ideas in each paragraph or the reader may become confused.
You also want to ensure you have transitions between paragraphs so the reader understands how the paper flows from one idea to the next.
Fill in facts from your research under each paragraph which you want to write about when you write the essay. Make sure each paragraph ties back in to your thesis and creates a cohesive, understandable essay.
Write and Edit
Once you have an outline, its time to start writing. Write from the outline itself, fleshing out your basic skeleton to create a whole, cohesive and clear essay.You will want to edit and re-read your essay, checking to make sure it sounds exactly the way you want it to. You want to:
Revise for clarity, consistency and structure.
Make sure everything flows together
Support your thesis adequately with the information in your paragraphs.
Make sure you have a strong introduction and conclusion so the reader comes away knowing exactly what your paper was about.
Revise for technical errors.
Check for grammar problems, punctuation and spelling errors. You cannot always count on spell check to recognize every spelling error as sometimes you can spell a word incorrectly but your misspelling will also be a word, such as spelling from as form.
A lot goes in to writing a successful essay; fortunately, these tips for writing essays can help you along the way and get you on the path to a well-written essay
Source: http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/writing/how-to-write-an-essay.html

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Phrasal Verb

Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs sendiri ada 2 jenis. Pertama adalah
NON-separable verbs , dimana preposisi HARUS mengikuti kata kerja. Contohnya: I check into them, NOT I check them into. Sedangkan jenis kedua adalah SEPARABLE verbs HARUS dipisah diantara objek dan preposisi. Contohnya: I brought the children up NOT I brought up the children.
Note:
1. Supaya postingnya tidak terlalu panjang, maka table akan saya bagi menjadi 2.
2. Non-Separable verbs ditandai dengan tanda (*), sedangkan separable verbs tidak.
Ask out ~ Ask someone to go on a date
Bring about ~ Cause
Bring up ~ 1) rear children 2) mention or introduce a topic
Call back ~ Return a telephone call
Call in ~ A to come to an official place for a special reason
Calloff ~ Cancel
Call on* ~ 1) visit 2) ask a student a question in class
Catch up(with)* ~ Reach the same position or level as someone
Check in* ~ Register at a hotel
Check into* ~ Investigate
Check out ~ 1)borrow a book from a library 2)investigate
Cheer up ~ Make (someone) feel happier
Clean up ~ Make clean and orderly
Come across* ~ Find by chance
Cross out ~ Draw a line through
Cut out ~ Stop an annoying activity
Do over ~ Repeat
Drop in (on)* | Drop by ~ Visit informally
Drop off ~ Leave something/someone somewhere
Drop out (of)* ~ stop going to school or class
Figure out ~ Find the answer by logic
Fill out ~ Complete a form
Find out ~ Discover information
Get along (with)* ~ To have a good relationship with
Get back(from) ~ 1) return from somewhere 2) receive again
Get in, get into ~ 1) enter a car 2) arrive
Get off* ~ Leave any vehicle
Get on* ~ Enter any vehicle
Get out of* ~ 1) Leave a car 2) avoid some unpleasant activity
Get over* ~ Recover from illness
Get through* ~ Finish
Get up* ~ Arise from bed, a chair, etc
Give back ~ Return something to someone
Give up ~ Stop doing something
Go over* ~ Review or check
Grow up* ~ Become an adult
Hand in ~ Submit an assignment
Hang up ~ 1) Stop telephone conversation 2) put up clothes on a line or block
Have on ~ Wear

Source: https://englishforeveryone10.blogspot.co.id/2017/07/phrasal-verbs.html?m=1

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Evaluasi Pembelajaran

A. Pengertian Evaluasi
Istilah evaluasi berasal dari bahasa Inggris yaitu Evaluation yang artinya penilaian. Evaluasi memiliki banyak arti yang berbeda, menurut Wang dan Brown dalam buku yang berjudul Essentials of Educational Evaluation , dikatakan bahwa “Evaluation refer to the act or process to determining the value of something”, artinya “evaluasi adalah suatu tindakan atau suatu proses untuk menentukan nilai daripada sesuatu”. Sesuai dengan pendapat tersebut maka evaluasi pendidikan dapat diartikan sebagai tindakan atau suatu proses untuk menentukan nilai segala sesuatu dalam dunia pendidikan atau segala sesuatu yang ada hubungannya dengan dunia pendidikan.
Evaluasi dapat diartikan sebagai suatu kegiatan yang terencana untuk mengetahui keadaan suatu objek dengan menggunakan instrumen dan hasilnya dibandingkan dengan suatu tolak ukur untuk memperoleh suatu kesimpulan. Fungsi utama evaluasi adalah menelaah suatu objek atau keadaan untuk mendapatkan informasi yang tepat sebagai dasar untuk pengambilan keputusan
Sesuai pendapat Grondlund dan Linn (1990) mengatakan bahwa evaluasi pembelajaran adalah suatu proses mengumpulkan, menganalisis dan menginterpretasi informasi secaras sistematik untuk menetapkan sejauh mana ketercapaian tujuan pembelajaran.
Sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa evaluasi adalah proses mendeskripsikan, mengumpulkan dan menyajikan suatu informasi yang bermanfaat untuk pertimbangan dalam pengambilan keputusan. Evaluasi pembelajaran merupakan evaluasi dalam bidang pembelajaran.
Untuk memperoleh informasi yang tepat dalam kegiatan evaluasi dilakukan melalui kegiatan pengukuran. Pengukuran merupakan suatu proses pemberian skor atau angka-angka terhadap suatu keadaan atau gejala berdasarkan atura-aturan tertentu. Dengan demikian terdapat kaitan yang erat antara pengukuran (measurment) dan evaluasi (evaluation). Kegiatan pengukuran merupakan dasar dalam kegiatan evaluasi.
B.  Kedudukan Evaluasi dalam Proses Pendidikan
Proses pendidikan merupakan proses pemanusiaan manusia, dimana di dalamnya terjadi proses membudayakan dan memberadabkan manusia. Transformasi dalam proses pendidikan adalah proses untuk membudayakan dan memberadabkan siswa. Unsur-unsur transformasi proses pendidikan, meliputi :
1)      Pendidik dan personal lainnya
2)      Isi pendidikan
3)      Teknik
4)      Sistem evaluasi
5)      Sarana pendidikan, dan
6)      Sistem administrasi.
Keluaran dalam proses pendidikan adalah siswa yang semakin berbudaya dan beradab sesuai dengan tujuan yang ditetapkan. Umpan balik dalam proses pendidikan adalah segala informasi yang berhasil diperoleh selama proses pendidikan yang digunakan sebagai bahan pertimbangan untuk perbaikan masukan dan transformasi yang ada dalam proses.

Source : http://yahyanurkan.blogspot.co.id/2015/04/makalah-konsep-dasar-evaluasi.html?m=1

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TALKING ABOUT THE PAST

1 Talking about past events and situations:

We use the past simple:

• when we are talking about an event that happened at a particular time in the past

We arrived home before dark
The film started at seven thirty.

• when we are talking about something that continued for some time in the past

Everybody worked hard through the winter.
We stayed with our friends in London.

When we are talking about something that happened several times in the past we use

• the past simple:

Most evenings we stayed at home and watched DVDs.
Sometimes they went out for a meal.

• … or used to

Most evenings we used to stay at home and watch DVDs.
We used to go for a swim every morning.

• ... or would

Most evenings he would take the dog for a walk.
They would often visit friends in Europe.

WARNING: We do not normally use would with stative verbs.

We use the past continuous :

• when we are talking about something which happened before and after a given time in the past

It was just after ten. I was watching the news on TV.
At half-time we were losing 1-0.

• when we are talking about something happening before and after another action in the past:

He broke his leg when he was playing rugby.
She saw Jim as he was driving away.

2 The past in the past

• When we are looking back from a point in the past to something earlier in the past we use the past perfect:

Helen suddenly remembered she had left her keys in the car.
When we had done all our shopping we caught the bus home.
They wanted to buy a new computer, but they hadn’t saved enough money.
They would have bought a new computer if they had saved enough money.

3 The past and the present:

We use the present perfect:

• when we are talking about the effects in the present of something that happened in the past:

I can’t open the door. I’ve left my keys in the car.
Jenny has found a new job. She works in a supermarket now.

• When we are talking about something that started in the past and still goes on:

We have lived here since 2007. (and we still live here)
I have been working at the university for over ten years.

4 The future in the past

When we talk about the future from a time in the past we use:

• would as the past tense of will

He thought he would buy one the next day.
Everyone was excited. The party would be fun.

• was/were going to

John was going to drive and Mary was going to follow on her bicycle.
It was Friday. We were going to set off the next day.

• the past continuous:

It was September. Mary was starting school the next week.
We were very busy. The shop was opening in two weeks' time.

 Source https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/talking-about-past

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TALKING ABOUT THE PRESENT

1. We use the present simple:

• to talk about something happening regularly in the present:

The children come home from school at about four.
We often see your brother at work.

•  to talk about something happening continually in the present:

They live next door to us.
He works for the Post Office.

•  to talk about things which are generally true:

Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
The Nile is the longest river in Africa.

2. We use the present continuous:

• to show that something in the present is temporary:

We are living in a rented flat at present.
My wife usually goes in to the office, but she is working at home today.

• for something happening regularly in the present before and after a given time:

I’m usually getting ready for work at eight o’clock.
When I see George he’s always reading his newspaper.

• for something happening before and after the moment of speaking:

I can’t hear you. I’m listening to my iPod.
Be quiet. The children are sleeping.

3. We use modal verbs

• to talk about the present when we are not sure of something:

I don’t know where Henry is. He might be playing tennis.
Who’s knocking at the door? I don’t know. It could be the police.

Source  https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/talking-about-present

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Saying what time it is

Saying what time it is

In English there are two common ways of saying what time it is.


8.05: eight (oh) five OR five past eight


8.10: eight ten OR ten past eight


8.15: eight fifteen OR a quarter past eight


8.25: eight twenty-five OR twenty-five past eight


8.30: eight thirty OR half past eight


8.35: eight thirty-five OR twenty-five to nine


8.45: eight forty-five OR a quarter to nine


8.50: eight fifty OR ten to nine


9.00: nine o’clock


Note that the expression o’clock is only used at the hour.


I get up at five o’clock.


I’ve breakfast at 8.30. (NOT I have breakfast at 8.30 o’clock.)
Notes


The figure 0 is called nought in British English, and zero in American English. When we say numbers one figure at a time, 0 is often called oh (pronounced like the letter O)
Asking what time it is


Here are some questions you can ask.


What time is it?


Could you tell me the time?


Have you got the time?


What’s the time?


What time do you make it?


What do you make the time?


In British English, the expression ‘What time is it by your watch?’ is also used.






This is Owned and Published by English Grammar On March 25, 2017

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Adjective Phrase

Adjective Phrase

A word group that has an adjective as its head is called an adjective phrase. Note that the adjective in this phrase may be accompanied by other words such as determiners, modifiers etc.


Adjective phrases can go before a noun (attributive position). They can also go after a linking verb like be (predicative position).
He was wearing a dark brown suit. (Here the adjective phrase ‘a dark brown’ modifies the noun suit.)
The fish tasted awfully funny. (Here the adjective phrase ‘awfully funny’ says something about the fish. It goes after the copular or linking verb tasted.


A copular verb does not take an object and it cannot be modified by an adverb. The word or phrase that follows a copular verb typically says something about the subject of the sentence.
The fish tasted awful. (NOT The fish tasted awfully.)


Here the adjective awful says something about the fish. It doesn’t modify the verb tasted.


Note that the adjective in an adjective phrase may be modified by an adverb. When it is modified by an adverb, the adverb goes before the adjective. The adjective may also be modified by other determiners like articles, possessives and demonstratives.


Consider the phrase ‘my cute little daughter’


Here the adjective phrase ‘my cute little’ consists of a possessive (my) and two adjectives (cute and little).


Sometimes the idea expressed by an adjective can also be expressed using a noun phrase. Consider the examples given below.
Brutus is an honorable man. (Here the adjective honorable modifies the noun man.)


The same idea can be expressed using the phrase: a man of honor
Brutus is a man of honor.


Another example is given below.
Churchill was an eminent man. (Here the adjective eminent modifies the noun man.)
Churchill was a man of eminence. (Here the noun phrase ‘a man of eminence’ means the same as the phrase ‘an eminent man’.)






This Owned and Published by English Grammar On August 27, 2013


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Cara Cepat Bicara Bahasa Inggris tanpa Kursus

Ikutilah tips-tips di bawah ini dengan seksama agar kamu dapat nerbicara bahqsa Inggris dengan cepat.
1.   Mantapkan dulu niat dan tekad anda untuk bisa mengusai bahasa Inggris. Jika sudah ada kemauan yang kuat, maka jalan selanjutnya akan lebih mudah.

2.    Pelajari dulu cara mengucapkan alphabet dalam bahasa Inggris dari a sampai z, angka-angka, dan kata-kata dan kalimat-kalimat dasar bahasa Inggris seperti : aku, kamu, mereka, dia, disana, siapa, mengapa, dimana, apa kabarmu, baik, ucapan selamat dsb. Ini bisa anda pelajari dari buku-buku belajar bahasa Inggris manapun, tak harus yang mahal-mahal (anak-anak sekarang seharusnya sudah mempelajarinya di sekolah). Lebih bagus lagi jika anda bisa mempelajarinya di internet memanfaatkan mesin pencari google. Tujuan mempelajari kata-kata dan kalimat sederhana ini adalah untuk menumbuhkan minat sekaligus meningkatkan semangat anda dalam belajar karena merasa bisa setelah belajar hal-hal yang mudah.

3. B agian paling penting dari sebuah bahasa adalah kosakata (vocabulary). Anda bisa memasang target harus menghapal berapa banyak kosa kata baru bahasa Inggris dalam sehari. Anda bisa memanfaatkan buku kamus bahasa Inggris maupun internet. Hendaknya anda menghapal bagaimana cara menuliskan kata tersebut, sekaligus cara mengucapkannya yang benar. Untuk mengetahui cara pengucapan yang benar dari suatu kata anda bisa mendengarnya langsung dari internet, biasanya dari situs kamus bahasa Inggris, contohnya : thefreedictionary.com. Situs tersebut memang merupakan situs bahasa Inggris yang memberi penjelasan juga dalam bahasa Inggris. Tapi bagi anda yang pemula bisa memanfaatkannya untuk mendengarkan cara pengucapannya dengan mengklik gambar yang berbentuk terompet setelah anda memasukkan suatu kata kunci yang hendak dicari maknanya. Alternatif lainnya adalah situs kamus.net yang merupakan situs online kamus bahasa inggris - indonesia. Disana selain mendapatkan arti kata dalam bahasa Indonesia, anda juga bisa mendengar cara pengucapan kata. Akan tetapi kelemahannya situs tersebut kurang lengkap (walau terus mengalami perbaikan dari waktu ke waktu). Alternatif tambahan adalah : fitur translate atau terjemahan yang ada di situs google dimana selain berfungsi sebagai kamus (bisa per kata bisa juga per kalimat), juga bisa untuk mendengarkan cara pengucapan kata. Akan tetapi ketepatan google translate ini tak 100%, jadi cuma sebagai pembantu.

4.   Pelajarilah tata bahasa Inggris (grammar), baik ketika anda sudah menguasai cukup banyak kata-kata bahasa Inggris ataupun dilakukan secara bersamaan dengan menghapal kosakata. Anda bisa memanfaatkan buku apa saja pada awalnya. Setelah anda memiliki cukup bekal kosakata, atau sudah bisa memanfaatkan kamus dan mencari arti kata bahasa inggris dengan cepat, maka janganlah segan-segan memiliki buku tata bahasa (English Grammar) yang tebal-tebal dan bagus. Pelajari dengan teratur, rajin, dan berkesinambungan. Jangan takut jika ada sebagian tata bahasa yang membuat anda bingung. Tak masalah, yang penting hal-hal dasar mampu anda kuasai seperti menyusun kalimat yang benar dalam konteks saat ini (present tense), masa lalu (past tense), masa akan datang, yang sudah terjadi, dsb. yang bisa anda pelajari bertahap. Internet juga bisa anda manfaatkan dalam belajar tata bahasa Inggris saat ini.

5.Banyak-banyak membaca artikel atau tulisan bahasa Inggris seperti dari internet, koran / majalah bahasa Inggris, buku-buku bahasa Inggris, dsb. Dengan bekal beberapa kosakata, dan tata bahasa dasar yang telah anda kuasai, anda diharapkan paling tidak sudah bisa mengerti tulisan bahasa Inggris. Walaupun cuma sepertiga atau sepersepuluh paragraf yang anda bisa tahu, tak masalah. Jangan takut ! Anda masih dalam tahap belajar. Dengan membaca tulisan berbahasa Inggris, anda malah akan bisa menambah kosakata anda yakni dengan menandai kata yang tak dimengerti lalu mencari tahu artinya. Anda juga akan dapat gambaran bagaimana tata bahasa Inggris atau cara menyusun kata-kata untuk menjadi sebuah kalimat yang baik dalam bahasa Inggris dengan membaca tulisan-tulisan tersebut.

6.   Untuk melatih pendengaran anda mendengar bahasa Inggris, anda bisa memanfaatkan nyanyian bahasa Inggris, dengarkan dan bandingkan dengan lyric lagunya yang bisa diperoleh dari internet. Atau bisa juga dengan menonton film-film bahasa Inggris tanpa memperhatikan atau dengan menghilangkan teks bahasa Indonesianya.

7.  Latihan berbicara bahasa Inggris, baik secara langsung maupun secara mental. Belajar bahasa tanpa praktek memang akan susah. Carilah teman yang bisa anda ajak berlatih bercakap-cakap dalam bahasa Inggris. Anda juga bisa berbicara pada diri anda sendiri atau berpikir dengan menggunakan kalimat bahasa Inggris. Lebih baik lagi jika anda sekali-kali berusaha bercengkrama atau berkenalan dengan orang asing yang berbahasa Inggris sehingga anda bisa mempraktekkan apa yang telah dipelajari secara langsung.

  8. Jangan pernah menyerah karena memang belajar bahasa butuh waktu. Tak ada orang yang bisa langsung seketika mahir berbahasa Inggris. Butuh proses yang bisa memakan waktu bertahun-tahun untuk bisa ke tahap berkomunikasi memakai bahasa Inggris dengan baik. Maka mulailah dari sekarang sehingga lebih cepat anda akan bisa menguasai bahasa Inggris nantinya.

9. Inilah langkah terakhir yang mesti diperhatikan. Beranilah dan jangan malu ! Bahasa Inggris bukanlah bahasa asli anda. Orang lain (barat/bule) akan mengerti itu, akan paham, dan tak akan pernah mengejek anda jika salah berucap. Perlu anda ketahui banyak orang-orang yang tak bisa berbahasa Inggris dengan baik dan lancar tetap nekad pergi ke negara asing yang berbahasa Inggris, dan mereka nyaris sama sekali tak pernah diejek dengan kemampuan berbahasa yang pas-pasan. Malah pada akhirnya mereka dengan kesungguhan hati dan keberaniannya mampu berbahasa Inggris dengan fasih.

Sumber: http://horizonwatcher.blogdetik.com/2011/11/27/cara-cepat-belajar-bahasa-inggris-sendiri-tanpa-les-kursus/

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SIMPLE PAST TENSE

Simple Past Tense

There are two tenses in English – past and present.
The past tense in English is used:

• to talk about the past
• to talk about hypotheses – things that are imagined rather than true.
• for politeness.

There are four past tense forms in English:

Tense	Form
Past simple:	I worked
Past continuous:	I was working
Past perfect:	I had worked
Past perfect continuous:	I had been working

We use these forms:

• to talk about the past:

He worked at McDonald’s. He had worked there since July..
He was working at McDonald’s. He had been working since July.

• to refer to the present or future in conditions:

He could get a new job if he really tried.
If Jack was playing they would probably win.

and hypotheses:

It might be dangerous. Suppose they got lost.
I would always help someone who really needed help.

and wishes:

I wish it wasn’t so cold.

• In conditions, hypotheses and wishes, if we want to talk about the past, we always use the past perfect:

I would have helped him if he had asked.
It was very dangerous, What if you had got lost?
I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.

• We can use the past forms to talk about the present in a few polite expressions:

Excuse me, I was wondering if this was the train for York.
I just hoped you would be able to help me.

Source https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/past-tense

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Tips Menghafal Kosa Kata (Vocabulary) Bahasa Inggris

Sebelum kita masuk pada pembahasan tips menghafal kosa kata bahasa Inggris, sebaiknya kita mengetahui terlebih dahulu mengapa kita harus menghafal kosa kata bahasa Inggris.

Alasan seseorang membutuhkan kosa kata bahasa Inggris yang banyak adalah untuk tujuan komunikasi. Seseorang akan sulit berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Inggris jika perbendaharaan kata bahasa Inggris yang mereka milika sangat kurang. Itulah sebabnya seseorang harus menghafal kosa kata jika ingin lancar berbahasa Inggris.

Berikut ini beberapa tips menghafal kosa kata bahasa Inggris yang bisa kalian terapkan.

1. Pelajari dan hafalkan minimal 3 sampai 6 kata per hari
2. Bacalah kosa kata yang telah Anda baca secara berulang ulang. Batasi maksimal 6 kata per hari
3. Anda tidak seharusnya mempelajari kosa kata baru sebelum Anda benar-beenar menguasai dan mahir mengingat kosa kata pada hari sebelumnya
4. Disiplin, fokus dan selalu semangat. Jangan sampai Anda membiarkan rasa bosan menghantui Anda tiap kali Anda belajar menghafal dan menguasai kosa kata bahasa Inggris.
5. Catatlah target pencapaian pada jurnal
6. Gunakan kosa kata baru tersebut ke dalam kalimat tanya, positif dan negative sehingga Anda akan semakin mengingatnya
7. Gunakan kosa kata baru untuk dikombinasikan dengan percakapan yang Anda buat sendiri. Lalu, praktekan percakapan tersebut dengan teman Anda atau dengan diri sendiri di depan cermin
8. Manfaatkan teman-teman yang mempunyai niat serupa dengan Anda untuk belajar bahasa Inggris
9. Dari kalimat-kalimat yang Anda buat dengan kosa kata baru tersebut, praktekan dengan suara yang lantang dan penuh percaya diri
10. Lakukanlah kebiasaan menghafal kosa kata secara terus-menerus dan penuh semangat!

Itulah beberapa tips yang bisa kalian gunakan untuk menghafal kosa kata. Yang terpenting dari semua itu adalah menggunakan kosa kata yang telah dihafalkan, gunanya adalah agar kalian tidak lupa dan agar kalian terbiasa dengan kosa kata tersebut.

Selamat menghafal
Good luck!!!

Source: http://carabisabahasainggris.com/10-tips-trik-cara-menghafalkan-kosa-kata-bahasa-inggris

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SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Simple Present Tense

The present tense is the base form of the verb: I work in London.
But the third person (she/he/it) adds an -s: She works in London.

Use

We use the present tense to talk about:

• something that is true in the present:

I’m nineteen years old.
He lives in London.
I’m a student.

• something that happens again and again in the present:

I play football every weekend.

We use words like sometimes, often. always, and never (adverbs of frequency) with the present tense:

I sometimes go to the cinema.
She never plays football.

• something that is always true:

The adult human body contains 206 bones.
Light travels at almost 300,000 kilometres per second.

 

• something that is fixed in the future.

The school term starts next week.
The train leaves at 1945 this evening.
We fly to Paris next week.

Questions and negatives

Look at these questions:

Do you play the piano?
Where do you live?
Does Jack play football?
Where does he come from?
Do Rita and Angela live in Manchester?
Where do they work?

• With the present tense, we use do and does to make questions. We use does for the third person (she/he/it) and we use do for the others.

 We use do and does with question words like where, what and why:

 But look at these questions with who:

Who lives in London?
Who plays football at the weekend?
Who works at Liverpool City Hospital?

Look at these sentences:

I like tennis, but I don’t like football. (don’t = do not)
I don’t live in London now.
I don’t play the piano, but I play the guitar.
They don’t work at the weekend.
John doesn’t live in Manchester. (doesn’t = does not)
Angela doesn’t drive to work. She goes by bus.

• With the present tense we use do and does to make negatives. We use does not (doesn’t) for the third person (she/he/it) and we use do not (don’t) for the others.

Source  https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/present-tense/present-simple

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American English VS British English

There is an old saying that America and Britain are “two nations divided by a common language.”

No one knows exactly who said this, but it reflects the way many Brits feel about American English. My British friend still tells me, “You don’t speak English. You speak American.”

But are American and British English really so different?

Vocabulary

The most noticeable difference between American and British English is vocabulary. There are hundreds of everyday words that are different. For example, Brits call the front of a car the bonnet, while Americans call it the hood.

Americans go on vacation, while Brits go on holidays, or hols.

New Yorkers live in apartments; Londoners live in flats.

There are far more examples than we can talk about here. Fortunately, most Americans and Brits can usually guess the meaning through the context of a sentence.

Collective Nouns

There are a few grammatical differences between the two varieties of English. Let’s start with collective nouns. We use collective nouns to refer to a group of individuals.

In American English, collective nouns are singular. For example, staff refers to a group of employees; band refers to a group of musicians; team refers to a group of athletes. Americans would say, “The band is good.”

But in British English, collective nouns can be singular or plural. You might hear someone from Britain say, “The team are playing tonight” or “The team is playing tonight.”

Auxiliary verbs

Another grammar difference between American and British English relates to auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, are verbs that help form a grammatical function. They “help” the main verb by adding information about time, modality and voice.

Let’s look at the auxiliary verb shall. Brits sometimes use shall to express the future.

For example, “I shall go home now.” Americans know what shall means, but rarely use it in conversation. It seems very formal. Americans would probably use “I will go home now.”

In question form, a Brit might say, “Shall we go now?” while an American would probably say, “Should we go now?”

When Americans want to express a lack of obligation, they use the helping verb do with negative not followed by need. “You do not need to come to work today.” Brits drop the helping verb and contract not. “You needn’t come to work today.”

Past Tense Verbs

You will also find some small differences with past forms of irregular verbs.

The past tense of learn in American English is learned. British English has the option of learned or learnt. The same rule applies to dreamed and dreamt, burned and burnt, leaned and leant.

Americans tend to use the –ed ending; Brits tend to use the -t ending.

In the past participle form, Americans tend to use the –en ending for some irregular verbs. For example, an American might say, “I have never gotten caught” whereas a Brit would say, “I have never got caught.” Americans use both got and gotten in the past participle. Brits only use got.

Don’t worry too much about these small differences in the past forms of irregular verbs. People in both countries can easily understand both ways, although Brits tend to think of the American way as incorrect.

Tag Questions

A tag question is a grammatical form that turns a statement into a question. For example, “The whole situation is unfortunate, isn’t it?” or, “You don’t like him, do you?”

The tag includes a pronoun and its matching form of the verb be, have or do. Tag questions encourage people to respond and agree with the speaker. Americans use tag questions, too, but less often than Brits. You can learn more about tag questions on a previous episode of Everyday Grammar.

Spelling

There are hundreds of minor spelling differences between British and American English. You can thank American lexicographer Noah Webster for this. You might recognize Webster’s name from the dictionary that carries his name.

Noah Webster, an author, politician, and teacher, started an effort to reform English spelling in the late 1700s.

He was frustrated by the inconsistencies in English spelling. Webster wanted to spell words the way they sounded. Spelling reform was also a way for America to show its independence from England.

You can see Webster’s legacy in the American spelling of words like color (from colour), honor (from honour), and labor (from labour). Webster dropped the letter u from these words to make the spelling match the pronunciation.

Other Webster ideas failed, like a proposal to spell women as wimmen. Since Webster’s death in 1843, attempts to change spelling rules in American English have gone nowhere.

Not so different after all

British and American English have far more similarities than differences. We think the difference between American and British English is often exaggerated. If you can understand one style, you should be able to understand the other style.

With the exception of some regional dialects, most Brits and Americans can understand each other without too much difficulty. They watch each other’s TV shows, sing each other’s songs, and read each other’s books.


Source: https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/six-difference-between-britsh-and-american-english/3063743.html

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Teks Narasi (Narrative Text)

Postingan kali ini membahas tentang teks narasi (narrative text)

 Pengertian
Narrative text adalah salah satu jenis teks bahasa inggris yang bertujuan untuk menceritakan suatu cerita yang memiliki rangkaian peristiwa kronologis yang saling terhubung.
 Tujuan
The Purpose of Narrative Text is to amuse or to entertain the reader with a story. Narrative text bertujuan untuk menghibur pembaca tentang suatu kisah atau cerita. Jenis Ada banyak jenis narrative text. Narrative text bisa berupa teks imajiner, faktual, atau kombinasi keduanya. Berikut ini jenis-jenis narrative text: fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror stories, adventure stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives, ballads, slice of life, personal experience.
  Generic Structure Struktur generik narrative text berfokus pada serangkaian tahapan yang diusulkan untuk membangun sebuah cerita. Dalam narrative text tahap itu meliput: 1. Orientation ( Pendahuluan ) di mana karakter , setting , dan waktu cerita ditetapkan . Biasanya menjawab pertanyaan siapa? kapan? dimana ? Misalnya: Once upon a time, there was a wolf lived in the forest.
 2. Complication or problem Menceritakan awal masalah yang menyebabkan krisis ( klimaks ). Complication biasanya melibatkan karakter utama.
3. Resolution Akhir dari cerita yang berupa solusi dari masalah. Perlu adanya resolusi dari masalah. Masalah dapat diselesaikan dapat menjadi lebih baik atau malah lebih buruk, bahagia atau sedih . Kadang-kadang ada beberapa komplikasi yang harus dipecahkan. Hal ini menambah dan mempertahankan minat dan ketegangan bagi pembaca nya.
 4. Reorientation/Coda merupakan pernyataan penutup cerita dan bersifat opsional . Bisa berisi tentang pelajaran moral, saran atau pengajaran dari penulis.
  Contoh
Buaja Na Pung Kura-Kura

Once upon a time, on the banks of the river Jene Berang inhabited a crocodile (Pung Buaja). Pung Buaja feels greatest with the other animals, the other the greatest running.
One day, from a distance he saw Pung Kura-Kura walking rather slowly. "Hi Kura, your way is slow, can not be quick" puke Pung Buaja "It's my slow way Buaja, but if you want to run, we are ready to challenge you, as long as you run under the river, I'm on the fringe" challenged Pung Kura-Kura. Hearing the challenge, Pung Buaja could not believe "How could the path slowly defeat me, look at my greatness, in a short time we can reach tens of meters, you one hour fortunately if there is one meter" Buaja taunted again. "Then Buaja, tomorrow we run race" challenged the Kura. "Okay, I'm ready to accept your challenge Pung Kura-Kura" said Pung Buaja.
In the evening, Pung Tortoise gathers his friends. They then set up a strategy. Nearly thousands of Kura are then lined up along the banks of the river Jene Berang.
 After being steady, the next day Pung Buaja came to accept the challenge. Pung Buaja then down to the River and Pung Turtle remains on the river bank. When the game started, Pung Buaja began to take a thousand steps. But every time Pung Buaja called Pung Turtle "Where you Kura" called Buaja, "Uk ... I'm in front of you" said Pung Kura.
So on, every calling is always the turtle in front of him reply. When almost at the finish, Pung Buaja called Pung Kura-Kura again, from the far heard voice Pung Kura-kura replied "I have long at the finish Pung Buaja, where are you from," said Pung Kura-Kura. Pung Buaja who looks tired, can not say anything and admitted defeat of greatness Pung Kura-Kura. "I admit your greatness runs Pung Kura-Kura" I'm Pung Buaja. From that moment on, Pung Buaja begins to promise not to ridicule Pung Kura-Kura again. Both then became best friends.


Source : http://www.kuliahbahasainggris.com/narrative-text-pengertian-tujuan-jenis-generic-structure-dan-contoh/

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WRITING PARAGRAPH

 

writing Paragraph

A thesis is a single, focused argument, and most paragraphs prove or demonstrate a thesis through explanations, examples and concrete details. This chapter will help you learn to write and analyse the types of paragraphs common in academic essays.

A.    Start with an Outline 

A brief outline will make it easier to develop topic sentences and to arrange your paragraphs in the most effective order.

You should begin your outline by stating the thesis of your paper:

The English Civil War was caused by a combination of factors, including the empowerment and organization of Puritan forces, the absolutist tendencies of James I and the personal ineptitude of his son Charles I.

Next, list the topic sentences for each of the paragraphs (or sections) of the paper:

1. The war and its aftereffects lasted twenty years.
2. Historically, the Protestants had believed themselves persecuted.
3. In the 1620s Protestants dominated Parliament and attempted to enact legislation which would provide guidelines for both religious worship and political representation.
4. During his reign in the early 1600s, James I had attempted to silence Puritan protests and to solidify the role of the monarchy as unquestioned head of state.
5. Charles I's lack of personal diplomacy and his advisers' desire for personal power gave the Puritans the excuses they needed to declare war on the monarchy.

You might notice that the topic sentences derive directly from the thesis, and explain, prove, or expand on each of the thesis' claims.

Once you have an outline at hand, you can follow three steps to help you write your paragraphs effectively:

1. Use your thesis to help you organise the rest of your paper.
2. Write a list of topic sentences, and make sure that they show how the material in each paragraph is related to your thesis.
3. Eliminate material that is not related to your thesis and topic sentences.

B.     Writing Topic Sentences 

A topic sentence (also known as a focus sentence) encapsulates or organises an entire paragraph, and you should be careful to include one in most of your major paragraphs. Although topic sentences may appear anywhere in a paragraph, in academic essays they often appear at the beginning.

It might be helpful to think of a topic sentence as working in two directions simultaneously. It relates the paragraph to the essay's thesis, and thereby acts as a signpost for the argument of the paper as a whole, but it also defines the scope of the paragraph itself. For example, consider the following topic sentence:

Many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.

If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then all sentences in the paragraph must relate in some way to fast food, profit, and "forget sauce":

Made largely from edible oil products, this condiment is never listed on the menu.

This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a description of the composition of "forget sauce."

In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the reason why ingredients are never listed on the packaging of victuals sold by these restaurants.

The transitional phrase "In addition" relates the composition of "forget sauce" to secret fast-food industry practices.

"Forget sauce" has a chemical property which causes temporary amnesia in consumers.

Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on consumers:

After spending too much money on barely edible food bereft of any nutritional value, most consumers swear they will never repeat such a disagreeable experience.

This sentence describes its longer-term effects:

Within a short period, however, the chemical in "forget sauce" takes effect, and they can be depended upon to return and spend, older but no wiser.

Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim contained in the topic sentence, that many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.

1)      Analysing a Topic Sentence

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements. Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way. Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Consider the last paragraph about topic sentences, beginning with the topic sentence itself:

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements.

This is my claim, or the point I will prove in the following paragraph. All the sentences that follow this topic sentence must relate to it in some way.

Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph.

These two sentences show how the reader can compare thesis statements and topic sentences: they both make a claim and they both provide a focus for the writing which follows.

Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way.

Using the transitional word "further" to relate this sentence to those preceding it, I expand on my topic sentence by suggesting ways a topic sentence is related to the sentences that follow it.

Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Finally, I wrap up the paragraph by stating exactly how topic sentences act rather like tiny thesis statements.

C.     Dividing your Argument 

Starting a new paragraph is a signal to your reader that you are beginning a new thought or taking up a new point. Since your outline will help you divide the essay into sections, the resulting paragraphs must correspond to the logical divisions in the essay. If your paragraphs are too long, divide your material into smaller, more manageable units; if they're too short, find broader topic sentences that will allow you to combine some of your ideas.

Look at the list of sentences below:

In preparation for study some students apportion a negligible period of time to clearing off a desk, a table, a floor; others must scrub all surfaces and clean all toilet bowls within 50 meters before the distraction of dirt disappears.

Some eat or pace while they work.

Some work with deep concentration, others more fitfully.

Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or stare blankly at walls or at computer screens.

If asked what space is reserved for learning, many students would suggest the classroom, the lab or the library.

The kitchen, and the bedroom function as study spaces.

Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity before they can work successfully.

Being sedentary seems to inspire others.

Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work before the sun rises, some after it sets.

Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very few can sit and not rise until their task is completed.

Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot produce anything without much dust and heat.

Were these sentences simply combined they would yield nothing but a long list of facts, not obviously related to one another, except that they all refer to students and the way we study. There is too much information here to include in one paragraph. The solution is to develop two topic sentences under which all (or most) of the above information will fit.

For most students the process of studying involves establishing a complex set of rituals which come to be repeated, with little variation, every time a task is assigned by a professor.

If we add the first five sentences to this topic sentence we have a unified but general description of the types of "rituals" or study patterns which are such an important part of academic life.

For most students the process of studying involves establishing a complex set of rituals which come to be repeated, with little variation, every time a task is assigned by a professor. In preparation for study some students apportion a negligible period of time to clearing off a desk, a table, a floor; others must scrub all surfaces and clean all toilet bowls within 50 meters before the distraction of dirt disappears. Some eat or pace while they work. Some work with deep concentration, others more fitfully. Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or stare blankly at walls or at computer screens.

The rest of the sentences are more specific. They concern the distribution of individual time, space and effort, and relate the rituals involved in study to those less commonly associated with school. A topic sentence might look something like this:

Work tends, therefore, to be associated with non-work-specific environments, activities, and schedules. If asked what space is reserved for learning, many students would suggest the classroom, the lab or the library. What about the kitchen? The bedroom? In fact, any room in which a student habitually studies becomes a learning space, or a place associated with thinking. Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity before they can work successfully. Being sedentary seems to inspire others. Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work before the sun rises, some after it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very few can sit and not rise until their task is completed. Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot produce anything without much dust and heat.

Some organisation and a couple of topic sentences have transformed a long and undifferentiated listing of student activities into two unified paragraphs with a logical division between them.

D.    Developing Unified and Coherent Paragraphs 

A paragraph is unified when every sentence develops the point made in the topic sentence. It must have a single focus and it must contain no irrelevant facts. Every sentence must contribute to the paragraph by explaining, exemplifying, or expanding the topic sentence. In order to determine whether a paragraph is well developed or not, ask yourself: "What main point am I trying to convey here?" (topic sentence) and then "Does every sentence clearly relate to this idea?"

There are several ways in which you can build good, clear paragraphs. This section will discuss three of the most common types of paragraph structure: development by detail, comparison and contrast, and process. Finally, it will suggest that most paragraphs are built of a combination of development strategies.

1)      Paragraph Development by Detail

This is the most common and easiest form of paragraph development: you simply expand on a general topic sentence using specific examples or illustrations. Look at the following paragraph (you may have encountered it before):

Work tends to be associated with non-work-specific environments, activities, and schedules. If asked what space is reserved for learning, many students would suggest the classroom, the lab or the library. What about the kitchen? The bedroom? In fact, any room in which a student habitually studies becomes a learning space, or a place associated with thinking. Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity before they can work successfully. Being sedentary seems to inspire others. Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work before the sun rises, some after it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very few can sit and not rise until their task is completed. Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot produce anything without much dust and heat.

The topic sentence makes a general claim: that school work tends not to be associated only with school. The rest of the sentences provide various illustrations of this argument. They are organised around the three categories, "environment, activities, and schedules," enumerated in the topic sentence. The details provide the concrete examples which your reader will use to evaluate the credibility of your topic sentence.

2)      Paragraph Development by Comparison and Contrast

You should consider developing your paragraph by comparison and contrast when you are describing two or more things which have something, but not everything, in common. You may choose to compare either point by point (X is big, Y is little; X and Y are both purple.) or subject by subject (X is big and purple; Y is small and purple.). Consider, for example, the following paragraph:

Although the interpretation of traffic signals may seem highly standardized, close observation reveals regional variations across this country, distinguishing the East Coast from Central Canada and the West as surely as dominant dialects or political inclinations. In Montreal, a flashing red traffic light instructs drivers to careen even more wildly through intersections heavily populated with pedestrians and oncoming vehicles. In startling contrast, an amber light in Calgary warns drivers to scream to a halt on the off chance that there might be a pedestrian within 500 meters who might consider crossing at some unspecified time within the current day. In my home town in New Brunswick, finally, traffic lights (along with painted lines and posted speed limits) do not apply to tractors, all terrain vehicles, or pickup trucks, which together account for most vehicles on the road. In fact, were any observant Canadian dropped from an alien space vessel at an unspecified intersection anywhere in this vast land, he or she could almost certainly orient him-or-herself according to the surrounding traffic patterns.

This paragraph compares traffic patterns in three areas of Canada. It contrasts the behaviour of drivers in the Maritimes, in Montreal, and in Calgary, in order to make a point about how attitudes in various places inform behaviour. People in these areas have in common the fact that they all drive; in contrast, they drive differently according to the area in which they live.

It is important to note that the paragraph above considers only one aspect of driving (behaviour at traffic lights). If you wanted to consider two or more aspects, you would probably need more than one paragraph.

3)      Paragraph Development by Process

Paragraph development by process involves a straightforward step-by-step description. Those of you in the sciences will recognise it as the formula followed in the "method" section of a lab experiment. Process description often follows a chronological sequence:

The first point to establish is the grip of the hand on the rod. This should be about half-way up the cork handle, absolutely firm and solid, but not tense or rigid. All four fingers are curved around the handle, the little finger, third finger and middle finger contributing most of the firmness by pressing the cork solidly into the fleshy part of the palm, near the heel of the hand. The forefinger supports and steadies the grip but supplies its own firmness against the thumb, which should be along the upper side of the handle and somewhere near the top of the grip. (from Roderick Haig-Brown, "Fly Casting")

The topic sentence establishes that the author will use this paragraph to describe the process of establishing the "grip of the hand on the rod," and this is exactly what he does, point by point, with little abstraction.

4)      Paragraph Development by Combination

Very often, a single paragraph will contain development by a combination of methods. It may begin with a brief comparison, for example, and move on to provide detailed descriptions of the subjects being compared. A process analysis might include a brief history of the process in question. Many paragraphs include lists of examples:

The broad range of positive characteristics used to define males could be used to define females too, but they are not. At its entry for woman Webster's Third provides a list of "qualities considered distinctive of womanhood": "Gentleness, affection, and domesticity or on the other hand fickleness, superficiality, and folly." Among the "qualities considered distinctive of manhood" listed in the entry for man, no negative attributes detract from the "courage, strength, and vigor" the definers associate with males. According to this dictionary, womanish means "unsuitable to a man or to a strong character of either sex."

This paragraph is a good example of one which combines a comparison and contrast of contemporary notions of "manliness" and "womanliness" with an extended list of examples.


Source :http://arts.uottawa.ca/writingcentre/en/hypergrammar/building-phrases

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